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 © Copyright A.T.Fomenko, G.V.Nosovskij
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                         (SHORT SCHEME)

                            ABSTRACT

    This   article   is   devoted   to   the   investigation   of
traditional version of English chronology and English history.  It
should be mentioned that this tradition was  established  only  in
15-17th cc.(and especially by Scaliger and Petavius) as a  result
of attempts to construct the global chronology of Europe and Asia
at that time.
    The results of our investigation show that modern version  of
English history (which is in fact a slightly  modernized  version
of 15-16th cc.), was artificially prolonged backward  and  became
much more long as it was in reality. The real history of England,
as it was reflected in written documents, was  much  more  short.
The same is true for other countries.
    In correct version, ancient and medieval English  events  are
to be transferred to the  epoch  which  begins  from  9-10th  cc.
Moreover, many of these events prove to  be  the  reflections  of
certain events from real Byzantine-Roman history  of  9-15th  cc.
Consequently, the Great Britain Empire is a direct  successor  of
medieval Byzantine Empire.
    This effect for English history corresponds  to  the  similar
"shortening effects" for traditional histories of other countries
(Italy, Greece, Egypt, Russia etc.). Such effects were discovered
earlier  by  the  authors  (see  our  previous  publications).  A
discussion of the  whole  problem  of  global  chronology  and  a
history of this problem one can find in [1],[24]. English history
is not an exemption from the "rule".
    We do not think that all  speculations  which  are  suggested
here  are  final  ones.  Surely,  they  are  subject  to  further
corrections and clarification. Nevertheless, the general  concept
is quite clear and seems to be a final one.
    The aim of present work is only to present main points of our
new version of reconstruction of the real English history.


                             CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. BRIEF REVIEW OF TRADITIONAL ENGLISH HISTORY

   2.1. The most old English chronicles

         2.1.1. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.
         2.1.2. Nennius' "Historia Brittonum"
         2.1.3. Galfridus Monemutensis' "Historia Brittonum".
                "Histoires of the kings of Britain by Geoffrey of
                Monmouth"
         2.1.4. Some other old English chronicles

    2.2. What were the medieval names for modern cities, nations and
         countries according to ancient English chronicles?

    2.3. An overview of traditional concept of English history

         2.3.1. Scotland  and  England: two parallel "dynastic
                streams"
         2.3.2. English history. Epoch from 1st to 445 A.D. England
                as the Roman colony
         2.3.3. Epoch from 445 to 830. Six kingdoms and their
                union
         2.3.4. Epoch from 830 to 1040. The epoch is finished by
                Danish conquest and then by disintegration of
                Dutch kingdom in England
         2.3.5. Epoch from 1040 to 1066. Epoch of the Old Anglo-Saxon
                dynasty and it's fall
         2.3.6. Epoch from 1066 to 1327. Norman dynasty and after
                it - Anjou dynasty. Two Edwards
         2.3.7. Epoch from 1327 to 1602.

3. PARALLELS BETWEEN ENGLISH AND BYZANTINE-ROMAN HISTORY. GREAT
   BRITAIN EMPIRE AS THE DIRECT SUCCESSOR OF MEDIEVAL BYZANTINE-ROMAN
   EMPIRE

    3.1. Rough comparison of dynastic streams of England and
         Byzantine-Roman empire

    3.2. Dynasty parallelism between ancient and medieval England
         from one side and medieval Byzantine empire from another side.
         General concept of correspondence between English and
         Byzantine histories

    3.3. Some details of dynastic parallelism ("parallelism
         table")

         3.3.1. English history of 640-830 A.D. and Byzantine
                history 378-553 A.D. 275-year shift
         3.3.2. English history of 800-1040 and Byzantine
                history of 553-830. Rigid 275-year shift
         3.3.3. English history of 1040-1327 and Byzantine
                history of 1143-1453. Rigid 120-year shift

4. CORRECT ENGLISH HISTORY IS MORE SHORT IN TIME  BUT  MUCH  MORE
   DENSE IN EVENTS THAN IT IS SUGGESTED BY TEXTBOOKS

    4.1. Our new concept of English history

    4.2. In which way the Byzantine chronicles were inserted
         into  the  medieval  English  history  (of  the   island
         Anglia)?

5. OLD ENGLISH CHRONICLES AS ORIGINAL DOCUMENTS WHICH SPEAK ABOUT
   REAL EVENTS OF 10-13th CENTURIES

    5.1. Roman consul Brutus - the first who conquered Britain
         (and the first king of britts)

    5.2. Consul Brutus of English chronicles - was he a contemporary
         of Julius Caesar?

    5.3. Biblical events in English chronicles

    5.4. Do we interpret ancient texts in a proper  way?  Problem
         of vowels restoration

    5.5. Geography and chronology of biblical events

         5.5.1. Problems with traditional geographical
                localizations
         5.5.2. Where ancient Troy was located?
         5.5.3. Where Moses traveled in reality?

    5.6. Why English chronicles suggested that both Russia and
         England were located on islands?

    5.7. Where was the land Britain which was conquered by
         Brutus located? In what direction his fleet cruised?

    5.8. With whom Brutus fights while conquering of Britain =
         Albania?

    5.9. With whom Julius Caesar fights while conquering of Britain =
         Albania?

    5.10. Where was London located in 10-11th cc.A.D.?

    5.11. Who were scots in 10-12th cc.A.D. and were did they live?
          Where was Scotland located in 10-12th cc.A.D.?

    5.12. Five original languages of ancient Britain. Which
          nations used these languages and where did they live
          in 10-12th cc.A.D.?

    5.13. Where were located six original English kingdoms
          Britain, Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex and Mercia in
          10-12th cc.A.D.?

    5.14. A shift of originally Byzantine map to the land of
          modern Great Britain resulted in duplicating of many
          geographical terms

    5.15. William I the Conqueror and  Hastings  battle  in  1066
          A.D. The fourth crusade in 1204 A.D.

         5.15.1. Two well-known wars in England and Byzantine
                 empire have the same origin
         5.15.2. English version of William the Conqueror story
         5.15.3. Byzantine version of the Constantinople's
                 conqueror
         5.15.4. A list of correspondences between events from
                 Byzantine and English chronicles

    5.16. Medieval Russia from the point of view of English
          chronicles. When did apostle Paul write his message to
          galats and who they were?

REFERENCES

                        1. INTRODUCTION

    This work belongs to the scope of investigations carried  out
by authors in order to give a critical analysis  of  ancient  and
medieval chronology, and also - to try a reconstruction  of  real
ancient chronology. The whole history of the problem one can find
in  A.T.Fomenko's  books  [1],[24].  In  these  books  some   new
statistical methods of obtaining true dates  for  ancient  events
recorded in old chronicles were suggested. As  a  result,  a  new
chronology of Europe, Asia, Egypt and Northern Africa based on  a
statistical investigation of  ancient  texts,  was  suggested  in
[1],[24]. One also can find there a list of all  publications  by
A.T.Fomenko and his colleagues devoted to chronological problems.
    This new concept of global history  and  chronology  confirms
some ideas  which  were  expressed  by  different  scientists  in
16-20th cc. The most  important  were  ideas  of  famous  Russian
scientist N.A.Morozov (1854-1946) who had an extremely wide range
of scientific interests in many  different  branches  of  natural
science and  history.  Very  interesting  works  devoted  to  the
problems of traditional chronology were written by Isaac  Newton,
J.Gardouin, R.Baldauf, E.Johnson and others.
    As  a  result  of  application  of  statistical  methods   to
historical science, A.T.Fomenko discovered a "fiber structure" of
our modern "textbook in ancient and medieval history". In such  a
way we will call a  modern  chronological  tradition  in  history
which is expressed in all our textbooks. It was proved that  this
"textbook" consist of four more  short  "textbooks"  which  speak
about the same events, the same historical  epochs.  These  short
"textbooks" were then shifted one with respect to  other  on  the
time axis and then glued together preserving  these  shifts.  The
result is our modern "textbook"  which  shows  the  history  much
longer than it was in reality. To be more precise, we speak  here
only about a "written" history, i.e.,  such  history  which  left
it's traces in  written  documents  which  finally,  after  their
certain evolution, we possess today. Of course before  it,  there
was a long "pre-written" history, but  information  about  it  is
lost.
    Resume is as follows. History which  we  in  principle  could
learn about today,  starts  only  in  9-10th  cc.  "A.D."  (i.e.,
1100-1200 years ago). And the very name "A.D."  attached  to  the
era which we use now, is not correct.
    New results concerning the problem of reconstruction of  real
ancient chronology one can find  in  two  last  Fomenko's   books
[4,5] devoted to history and chronology.
    An important step  to  the  reconstruction  of  real  ancient
chronology was made by publication  of  a  book  [3]  written  by
A.T.Fomenko, V.V.Kalashnikov and G.V.Nosovskij. In this book  the
true  date  of  compilation  of  a  famous   ancient   scientific
manuscript,  the  Ptolemy's   "Almagest",   was   (approximately)
determined as a  result  of  statistical  analysis  of  numerical
astronomical data in the "Almagest". Traditionally it is  assumed
that the "Almagest" was compiled not later than in 2nd c. A.D. In
[3] it is proved that the real date of it's  compilation  belongs
to the time interval from 7th century to 13th century A.D.
    Later, in 1992-1993, A.T.Fomenko and G.V.  Nosovskij  applied
new statistical methods to Russian history. In  Russian   history
there also were discovered chronological shifts  and  duplicates.
It proves to be very much different from  well-known  version  of
Russian history which was suggested in epoch of  Romanov  dynasty
reign in Russia. The book  "Chronology  and  General  Concept  of
Russian History" by  A.T.Fomenko  and  G.V.  Nosovskij  is  being
printed (in Russian).
    In  1992-1993  authors  recognized  that   the   history   of
development of English chronology and English history itself is a
very interesting and important point in the whole scope of global
chronology  reconstruction.  In  our  analysis  of  Russian   old
documents it was necessary to use also  some  English  documents.
And immediately we came upon several such amazing facts that,  it
become quite clear to us that English history  (which  is  rather
"spoiled"  in  modern  "textbook")  gives   new   and   important
information to the reconstruction of real  chronology  of  Europe
and Asia.
    We tried our best to make  this  work  independent  from  our
previous works. Nevertheless, such dependence exists. That is why
we recommend to anyone who really wants to understand  the  whole
problem of reconstruction  the  English  history  as  it   as  in
reality, to look through mentioned  above  books  and  scientific
publications by authors. We believe that this work  is  good  for
the beginning and it could serve  as  a  starting  point  to  the
reader. We tried to avoid citation from other our works here  (as
far as it was possible).
    It is pleasure for us to thank Mrs. Laura Alexander (USA) for
her  excellent  assistance  in  arranging  materials   concerning
English history. Her  energy  very  much  inspired  our  work  on
English history.
   We thank T.N.Fomenko for several  good  ideas  which  improved
some of our results  concerning  parallels  between  English  and
Byzantine history and also for valuable remarks which  made  this
text better.

   2. BRIEF REVIEW OF TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF ENGLISH HISTORY

              2.1. The most old English chronicles

               2.1.1. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle.

    To understand a material we are going  to  present  here,  it
would be better if a reader knows main things from English, Roman
and Byzantine history. As to  Roman  and  Byzantine  history,  we
assume that it is more or less the case. But old English  history
is not so generally well-known. That  is  why  we  are  going  to
present here a brief review of "English history textbook".
    Surely, we could simply suggest that a reader  looks  through
one of modern books concerned  with  English  history  before  he
reads  this  paper.  But  all  such  books  are  necessarily  the
secondary texts which, in fact, copy an information from more old
texts and documents devoted to English history.  The  problem  is
that this coping proves to be not so good (part of information is
lost). That is why we prefer to analyse medieval historical texts
themselves rather then modern textbooks, which are based on them.
An important advantage of these medieval texts is that they  were
written more close to the time of  creation  of  now  traditional
global chronological  version  (it  was  I.Scaliger's  one).  Our
experience says that an information about old  history  was  been
lost while publishing new and new textbooks from that time up  to
now. Medieval texts are more valuable for reconstruction of  real
history.
    Our analysis  was  based  mostly  on  three  famous  medieval
English chronicles: Anglo-Saxon Chronicle [2], Nennius' "Historia
Brittonum" [8] and Galfridus Monemutensis'  "Historia  Brittonum"
[9]. In fact, these texts form a basis for modern concept of  old
and medieval English history.
    Also we used well-known  "Chronological  Tables"  which  were
compiled by J.Blair [6] in 18th c. - beginning of 19th  c.  These
fundamental tables  cover  all  historical  epochs  which  seemed
important to experts in the end of 19th century.
   Now it is assumed that so-called "legendary"  English  history
started from the time of Trojan war, i.e., in  12-13th  cc.  B.C.
Nevertheless a 1000-year period from Trojan war to the  epoch  of
Julius Caesar (1st c. B.C.) is  considered  usually  as  a  "dark
time".
    From  the  time  of  creation  and  establishment  of  modern
chronological concept (by I.Scaliger and  D.Petavius  in  16-17th
cc.) it was assumed that "written" English history starts from 60
B.C. when Julius Caesar conquered the British islands. But it  is
known today that documents speak about English history only  from
approximately 1 A.D., i.e. from the rein of Octavian Augustus. It
was the 1 A.D. when Anglo-Saxon Chronicle began its records ([2],
p.4).
    The  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  consists  of  several   separate
manuscripts:

     Manuscript A: The Parker Chronicle
                      (60 B.C. - A.D. 1070),
     Manuscript B: The Abigdon Chronicle I
                       (A.D. 1 - A.D. 977),
     Manuscript C: The Abigdon Chronicle II
                      (60 B.C. - A.D. 1066),
     Manuscript D: The Worcester Chronicle
                      (A.D. 1 - A.D. 1079),
        (with twelfth-century addition 1080 - 1130 A.D.),
     Manuscript E: The Laud (Petersburg) Chronicle
                      (A.D. 1 - A.D. 1153),
     Manuscript F: The Bilingual Canterbury Epitome
                      (A.D. 1 - A.D. 1058).

    It is well-known that all these  manuscripts  duplicate  each
other in the sense that they all speak about the same events, but
in more or less details. That is why all they are placed  in  the
publication [2] parallel to  each  other  in  a  very  convenient
manner,  which  makes  it  easy  to  compare  different   records
concerning the same year. Maybe, all these manuscripts  have  the
same written original and in fact represent different scripts  of
one old chronicle.
   Anglo-Saxon Chronicle covers an epoch  from  1  A.D.  to  11th
century (except manuscript E which stops in 1153).
    It is traditionally assumed that all these  manuscripts  were
written approximately in 11-12th cc., just in the form  which  we
have today. But it is only a hypothesis which is  strongly  based
on the Scaliger's chronology. And it sounds not very natural. For
example, manuscript A exists now only in two "copies" and both of
them were made only in 16th c. (see [2], p.xxxiii). The  original
version (from which these two copies were made)  was  practically
burned out in a fire. As  to  other  manuscripts  of  Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, their history is not clear from [2]. For  example,  it
is not pointed out what were the methods of determining of  dates
when existing copies were made. One could have an idea  that  the
dating was as follows: if last records of these manuscripts refer
to 11-12th cc., then the copies we  now  posses  are  necessarily
written just in that form in  11-12th  cc.  Leaving  aside  other
objections, we must say that this speculation in fully  based  on
Scaliger's chronology. If real dates  of  last  mentioned  events
change, then such dating of a manuscript would also change.
    Difficulties with reconstruction of a true story for origin
of these manuscripts are well-known among experts. For
example David Knowles had to claim that:
     "The question  of  provenance  and  interdependence  of  the
various versions [of the Chronicle] are so complicated  that  any
discussion soon assumes the appearance  of  an  essay  in  higher
mathematics" ([2],p.xxxi).
    Moreover, G.N.Garmonsway says that  any  modern  analysis  of
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is based on the Charles Plummer's  revision
(1892-1899) of it's original edition published by John  Earle  in
1865. It should be mentioned that manuscripts A and E  are  again
"associated" (G.N.Garmonsway's expression) with  certain  persons
from 16th century - Archbishop Parker (1504-1575) and  Archbishop
Laud (1573-1645). Here is his text:
    "Any account of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is necessary  based
on Charles Plummer's revision of the edition of John Earle (1865)
which was published in two volumes by the Oxford University Press
in 1892-9... Plummer's edition... gives  prominence  on  opposite
pages to manuscripts A and E, associated  respectively  with  the
names  of  Archbishop  Parker  (1504-75)  and   Archbishop   Laud
(1573-1645);...The other manuscripts were once in the  possession
of Sir Robert Cotton (1571-1631), and are  to  be  found  in  the
Cottonian   collection   of   manuscripts    in    the    British
Museum"([2],p.xxxi).
    It seems that all the manuscripts  of  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle
which are available today were actually written (or revised)  not
earlier than in 15-16th centuries. However, they  are  considered
to be written in this form  in  11-12th  cc.  Probably  the  only
reason for such point of view is that traditional  dates  of  the
last events from Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle  belong  to  this  epoch:
11-12th cc. But such reason is not enough. It  is  possible  that
events from 11-12th cc. were described by somebody in 15-16th cc.
and we actually possess his secondary text which  could  be  very
far from an original version. And also, the dates of events  from
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle strongly depend  on  a  used  chronological
concept. If it changes then the dating of  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle
would change automatically.
     There is a strong argument which suggests  that  manuscripts
of Anglo-Saxon Chronicle are actually of a  rather  late  origin.
The problem is that all these manuscripts use modern  "A.D."  era
which came into regular practical use only in 15th century. It is
a known fact in traditional history. Later we will  also  present
some  facts  which  suggest  that  the  authors  of   Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle were already familiar with  J.Scaliger's  chronological
concept (16th c.), and by no means - with a chronological concept
of Matthew Vlastar (16th c.). It means that Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
was written much later then it is usually accepted.
    The reason for Anglo-Saxon Chronicle to be  paid  such  great
attention in  our  reconstruction  of  English  history  is  very
simple. It turns out that
     "Thanks to the example of Bede, the Chronicle is  the  first
history written in English  to  use  his  mastery  innovation  of
reckoning years as from the Incarnation of Our Lord -  "Years  of
Grace" as they were called in England."([2],p.xxiv).
   Concerning  the  way  of  presenting  dates   in   Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle we should  make  a  remark.  It  is  accepted  that  in
medieval England they used for "A.D." era the following  formula:
"Years from the Incarnation of Our Lord". It  is  accepted  today
that this formula was equivalent to the formula "Years of Grace".
But this equivalence in not so evident  and  requires  a  special
investigation. (We will return to this subject later and  discuss
it in more details). Note that  there  is  a  strange  similarity
between two well-known names-terms
                        Grace - Greece.
    Maybe the  original  (and  forgotten  today)  meaning  of  a
formula "Years of Grace"  differs  from  one  which  is  accepted
today. Maybe it was "years in Greece", "Greek years" or something
like this. It is possible also that there is a  relation  between
terms Grace, Greece and Christ. Was the name of Christ associated
in some sense with a name of country "Greece"? For example Christ
religion = "Greece religion"? It might  be  because  in  medieval
epoch Greece was a name of Byzantine  empire,  and  another  it's
name was Romea, Rome. So Christian,  "Roman"  religion  could  be
called also as "Greek religion"; but if so then there might be  a
confusion between "A.D.", "Christ" era and old "Greek", Byzantine
era which was used  sometimes,  as  well  as  "A.D.",  with  it's
thousands omitted. It could be not obvious which era was actually
used in an old documents which  indicate  "Years  of  Grace".  Of
course, such kind of similarity between different terms could not
be considered as very strong arguments supporting  any  point  of
view. It play a role of preliminary speculations  and  should  be
considered as a serious argument only in the case when it appears
(repeats) constantly  in  a  long  historical  parallelism,  when
similar names arise simultaneously for hundreds of years  in  two
different epochs after one of them is shifted in time as a  whole
and then compared with another one.
    Anglo-Saxon Chronicle was written in a very  laconic  manner,
it was divided into chapters (fragments) each of them devoted  to
a certain year. Many years are not described at  all  (there  are
some  lacunas  in  the  text).  It  is  considered   today   that
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle speaks about events from the  beginning  of
A.D. to 11-12th centuries. See Fig.1.  The  text  of  Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle seem to  be  really  very  old.  Absence  of  long  and
"beautifully  designed"  periods  in  the   text   (typical   for
historical literature of 15-16th cc.) suggests  that  Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle is an important historical document which was based  on
some really ancient records. Surely, it was edited in 16-17th cc.
and  a  main  question  is:  what  credit  should  we   give   to
chronologists of 15-17 centuries who  actually  dated  events  in
Anglo-Saxon Chronicle as we have it now?

             2.1.2. Nennius' "Historia Brittonum".

    Nennius' "Historia Brittonum" is a rather  short  text,  only
about 24 pages in [8].
    There exist more then 30 manuscripts of Nennius'  book  which
are known today (see [8]).
    "The earliest manuscripts are dated today  by  9th  or  10th
centuries, and the latest - by 13th or even  14th  centuries.  In
some of the manuscripts  are  indications  that  the  author  was
Gildas. Nennius is called as the author sufficiently rare.  Thus,
this manuscript is possibly - compilation...  The  original  text
was lost, we do not have it today. But  there  exists  its  Irish
translation of 11th century" ([8],p.269).
    Translation was  made  from  the  publication:  "Nennius  et
l'Historia brittonum", P.,1934.
    Some manuscripts are ended with pages from "Annals Cambriae",
which is considered to be compiled approximately in 954 A.D.
    Nennius' "Historia Brittonum" does not have nor chronological
subdivision neither any chronological notes except the  following
two ones:
    1) A table titled "About six ages of the world" is placed at
the beginning of the "Historia". It presents time  distances   in
years between some biblical events -  and  already  according  to
Scaliger's calculations, which were carried out only in 16th c.
    2) Chapter XVI of the "Historia" has a section  titled  "The
ground of the dating" , which speaks about the relative distances
(in years) between a few events from English history.
    In both cases chronological notes are very brief.
    Resume is that it is unclear, who and when actually wrote the
"Historia".  It's  original  text  does  not   exist   today,   a
translation which is considered to be carried out in 11th c.  The
text does not have it's  own  chronological  scale.  Surely,  all
questions  which  arise  with  Anglo-Saxon  Chronicle,  refer  to
"Historia" also. Moreover, Nennius' text is  written  in  a  free
artistic manner with many stylistic accessories. It suggests that
this manuscript is of rather late  origin.  Such  text  could  be
written only in an  atmosphere  of  a  deep  and  well  developed
literary tradition when many people use writing and reading books
and paper is not a treasure.
    It is accepted today that Nennius describes certain events in
a time interval from the epoch of Trojan war to 10-11th cc.  A.D.
In fact it is  a  result  of  only  a  traditional  chronological
concept (which  suggests  that  short  Nennius'  text  covers  an
extremely large 2000-year historical period) that one could  find
today giant lacunas in chronology of "Historia". Fig. 1 shows  by
a dotted line the epoch which is  considered  to  be  covered  by
"Historia".  According  to  traditional   chronological   concept
Nennius easily omits whole centuries in his  story,  makes  giant
chronological jumps without any explanations.  He  seems  not  to
notice it at all and continues his story after such jumps  as  if
nothing was missed.

      2.1.3. Galfridus Monemutensis' "Historia Brittonum".
  "Histories of the kings of Britain by Geoffrey of Monmouth".

    It is  generally  accepted  today  that  this  chronicle  was
written  in  30th  or  40th  of  12th  century  ([8],  p.196)  by
Galfridus Monemutensis who based it on  Nennius'  text, sometimes
even copying Nennius "errors" ([8], p.231, comments to chap.  17;
see also [8], p.244). Galfridus Monemutensis' book is rather  big
one - about 130  pages  in  [8].  In  opposition  to  Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle his text has no chronological subdivision (no indication
about years). His writing style was rather complicated, with many
accessories,  moralities,  philosophical  excursions  et  cetera.
Galfridus is even considered to be not a historian only but  also
a poet. Surely, the traditional  point  of  view  that  Galfridus
wrote his book after Nennius, is correct. It is known  also  that
Galfridus made an extensive use of "Ecclesiastic History  of  the
English Nation" (in Latin) by Bede Venerable ([9], p.244). It  is
assumed that Bede's "History" covers 597-731 A.D.
    It is remarkable that  modern  commentators  point  out  "the
extremely clear and evident Galfridus' orientation of the antique
tradition"  ([9], p.207). For example, Galfridus  not  only  used
ancient plots, but also copied  a  stylistic  manner  of  ancient
authors ([9], p.207). It seems that  Galfridus  writes  his  book
being fully influenced by the atmosphere  of  antiquity.  It  was
pointed out that Galfridus copies some  of  his  topics  directly
from ancient authors (for example, from Stacius),  but  does  not
give any references ([9], p.236).
     Galfridus Monemutensis' "Historia Brittonum"  was  extremely
popular in medieval times. "Today we have about two hundreds (! -
Auth.)  copies  of  his  "History",...  which  were  written   in
different places  starting  from  12th  century  and  until  15th
century, i.e., up to appearance of  the  first  printed  edition"
([9],p.228). At first time "Historia" was  printed  in  Paris  in
1508.
    Fig. 1 shows a  historical  epoch  which  is  assumed  to  be
covered by Galfridus' text (according to traditional chronology).
Notice that it is approximately the same  time  interval  as  for
Nennius' case: namely, from Trojan war up to 8th century A.D.  Of
course, Galfridus' book is much bigger  then  Nennius'  one,  but
being referred again to the giant  2000-year  time  interval,  it
could  not  cover  it  all  without  huge  lacunas.  And  really,
traditional  chronology  states  that  Galfridus   "omit"   large
historical epochs. But it is strange, that Galfridus himself does
not mind it  at  all.  He  calmly  continues  his  story  without
notifying a  reader  that  he  sometimes  actually  misses  whole
historical epochs in his chronology.

            2.1.4. Some other old English chronicles

    In our work we use also  some  other  English  chronicles  of
9-13th centuries, particularly those represented  in  a  book  by
V.I.Matuzova "English medieval documents"  [10].  Here  we  would
like to present a very interesting list  which  was  compiled  by
V.I.Matuzova as a result of her investigation of these chronicles
rather then to characterize them in details. We will discuss this
subject in the next section.

  2.2. What were the medieval names for modern cities, nations
     and countries according to ancient English chronicles?

    Many people use to think that medieval  chronicles  refer  to
such well-known areas (regions) as England, London, Russia,  Kiev
etc. with just the same names as today, and so in  general  there
is no problem to recognize what place old documents are  speaking
about. Sometimes, in more new documents, it is actually the case.
But in more old, original documents such situation  seems  to  be
rather an exception then a rule. Old chronicles  very  often  use
absolutely different geographical names and it  is  a  nontrivial
task to understand what regions (areas, towns et cetera) they are
really speaking about.
    It is also a problem that old documents in general use  many
different names for each country, land, nation  etc.  Very  often
these names have nothing to do with those we use today. The names
of ancient nations, countries and cities which are  known  today,
were fixed only in 18-20th centuries. But before that time  there
were  various  opinions  concerning  what  names  to  use.  These
opinions were often quite different from each other. It is a very
interesting question to analyse the  names  which  were  used  in
medieval English documents  for  cities,  nations  and  countries
which are so well-known today with their modern names.  It  turns
out after such analysis, that medieval authors seem to have quite
different views on old and ancient history. That  is  why  modern
specialists in history usually claim  that  almost  all  medieval
people  were  "extremely  wrong"  in  history,  that   they   had
"fantastic concepts" about it,  "confused  and  mixed  historical
epochs", "did not distinguish antiquity and medieval  epoch"  and
so on.
    In a  following  list  some  medieval  "synonyms"  of  modern
accepted names and terms are presented. Each entry  of  the  list
shows a modern term and is followed by it's medieval synonyms.

    AZOV SEA =                              ALANIA =
     Meotedisc lakes,                       Valana,
     Meotedisc fen,                         Alania,
     Maeotidi lacus,                        Valana,
     Maeotidi paludes,                      Valvy,
     palus   Maeotis,                       Polovtzy ?! - see below.
     paludes Maeotis,
     paludes Maeotidae,
     Paluz Meotidienes.

ALBANIANS =                               AMAZONS LAND  =
     Liubene,                               Maegda land,
     Albani.                                Maegda londe,
                                            Amazonia.

BULGARIANS =                              BUG RIVER =
     Wlgari,                                Armilla.
     Bulgari,
     Bougreis.

VANDALS =                              HUNGARY =
     Wandali,                               Hungaria,
     Sea-cost Slavs.                        Hunia,
                                            Ungaria,
                                            Minor Ungaria.

BYZANTINE EMPIRE =                     VALACHIANS =
     Graecia,                               Coralli,
     Constantinopolis,                      Blachi,
                                            Ilac,
                                            Blac,
                                            Turks ! (see below).

VALACHIA =                               VOLGA RIVER =
     Balchia.                               Ethilia.

GALITZK-VOLYNSK RUSSIA =               GERMANY =
     Galacia,                               Gothia,
     Gallacia.                              Mesia,
                                            Theutonia,
                                            Germania,
                                            Allemania,
                                            Jermaine.

HIBERNIC OCEAN =                       HIBERNIA =
     The English Channel                    Ireland (!)
     Hibernicum occeanum.

GOTHIA =                                GUNNS =
     Germany,                              Hunni,
     Island Gotland,                       Huni,
     Scandinavia,                          Hun.
     Tavrida (=old name of Crimea).

DACKS =                                 DENMARK =
     Dani,                                  Denemearc,
     Daneis.                                Dacia,
                                            Dania,
                                            Desemone.

DUTCH =                              DARDANELLES (the strait) =
     Daci,                                  St. Georg strait =
     Dani,                                  branchium Sancti Georgii.
     Norddene,
     Denen.

DERBENT (passage) =                  DNEPR RIVER =
     Alexander gates =                     Aper.
     Alexandres herga,
     Porta ferrea Alexandri,
     claustra Alexandri.

DOGI =                                DON RIVER =
     Russians (see below).                  Danai,
                                            Thanais,
                                            Tanais.

MEDIEVAL RUSSIA =                    DANUBE RIVER =
     Susie,                                 Danubius,
     Russie,                                Hister,
     Ruissie,                               Danuvius,
     Rusia,                                 Damaius,
     Russia,                                Deinphirus,
     Ruthenia,                              Danube.
     Rutenia,
     Ruthia,
     Ruthena,
     Ruscia,
     Russcia,
     Russya,
     Rosie.

IRON GATES =                          IRELAND =
     see "Derbent".                        Hybernia.

ICELAND =                             CAUCASUS =
     Ysolandia.                             beorg Taurus,
                                            Caucasus.

CASPIAN SEA =                         CASSARIA =
     Caspia garsecge,                       Chasaria (! (see below)
     mare Caspium.

KIEV =                                 CHINESE =
     Chyo (!),                              Cathaii.
     Cleva (!),
     Riona (!),

CORALLS =                               RED SEA =
     Wlaches (see above),                      mare Rubrum.
     Turks (see above),

ENGLISH CHANNEL =                          MARBURG =
     Hibernic ocean =                          Merseburg.
     Hibernicum occeanum.

MESIA =                                    MONGOLIANS =
     Moesia = Germany (see above),          Moal,
                                            Tatars (see above),

NARVA =                                     GERMANS =
     Armilla.                               Germanici=
                                            Germani,
                                            Teutonici,
                                            Theutonici,
                                            Allemanni.

NETHERLANDS =                              NORMANS =
     Frisia, Arise.                         Nordmenn.

OCEAN=                                   PECHENEGS (medieval
                                      neighbours of Russians) =
     Garsecg,                               Getae.
     Oceano,
     Oceanus,
     Occeanus,
     Ocean.

POLOVTZY (medieval
neighbours of Russians) =
                                        PRUSSIA =
     Planeti,                               Prutenia (!).
     Captac,                           (P-Rutenia = P-Russia).
     Cumani,                           PRUSSES =
     Comanii,                               Prateni,
     Alani,                                 Pruteni,
     Values,                                Pructeni,
     Valani.                                Prusceni,
     (See Comment 1.)                       Praceni,
                                            Pruceni.

RIONA =                                RUGS =
     Kiev (see above)                       Russians, , Sea-cost
                                            Slavs (see below)

RUSSIANS =                              RUTHENS =
     Russii,                                Russians (see above)
     Dogi (!),
     Rugi (!),
     Rutheni (!),
     Rusceni.

THE ARCTIC OCEAN =                      SITHIA =
     Scith ocean = Sciffia garsecg,      Scithia (see above)
     Occeanus Septentrionalis,
     mare Scythicum.

SCANDINAVIANS =                          SCITHIA =
     Gothi.                                 Sithia,
SCYTHS                                      Barbaria,
     Scithes,                               Scithia,
     Scythae,                               Scythia,
     Cit (!).                               Sice (!).

SEA-SIDE SCLAVI =                      TAVR =
     Winedas,                               Caucasus (see above)
     Wandali,                          TAVRIDA (CRIMEA) =
     Roge.                                  Gothia (!!!)

TANAIS =                               TATARS (MONGOLS) =
     Don (see above)                        Tartareori,
                                            gens Tartarins,
TYRRHENIAN SEA  =                           Tartari,
     mare Tyrene.                           Tartariti,
                                            Tartarii,
                                            Tattari,
                                            Tatari,
                                            Tartarii,
                                            Thartarei.

TURKS =                                URAL MOUNTAINS =
     Coralli,                               Riffeng beorgum,
     Thurki,                                Hyberborei montes,
     Turci,                                 montes Riph(a)eis,
     Blachi, Ilac, Blac (!!!).              Hyperborei montes.

FRANCE =                              FRISIA =
     Gallia,                                The Netherlands (see
     Francia.                               above.)

CHASARIA =                              CHASARS =
     Cassaria,                              Chazari.
     Cessaria (!!!).

CHIO =                                  BLACK SEA =
     Kiev (see above)                       Euxinus,
                                            Pontius,
SCOTLAND =                                  mare Ponticum,
     Scotia,                                mare Majus.
     Gutlonde.

CHINGIS-CHAN =                           JAROSLAV THE WISE
     Cingis,                              (Kiev Princeps Magnus) =
     Churchitan,                            Malesclodus,
     Zingiton,                              Malescoldus.
     Chircam,                               Juriscloth (= Jurius-
     Cliyrcam                                           Georgius),
     Gurgatan,                              Juliusclodius (= Julius-
     Cecarcarus,                                        Clodius).
     Ingischam,                             Julius Claudius.
     Tharsis (!),
     DAVID (!),
     PRESBYTER IOHANNES (!!).

    One remark about Jaroslav the Wise. He was known in  medieval
England as "Malescoldus". According  to  M.N.Alexeev  [12]  there
were also some other names which were  applied  to  Jaroslav  the
Wise in Western historical tradition:
               Juriscloht (from Jurius-Georgius),
                       Juliusclodius (!),
(the last form of Jaroslav's name was used by Norman historian of
12th century - Gijom),
                        Julius Claudius,
(this form used by Orderic Vitali).

    Let us present a typical example of  old  English  historical
text:
    "He escaped to the kingdom of Dogs, which we prefer to  call
RUSSIA. When the king of [this]  land  -  MALESCLODUS  -  learned
about him, he was given a great honor" ([13],[14]).
     Here is a Latin original text:
    "Aufugit ad regnum Dogorum, quod nos melius vocamus Russiam.
Quem rex terrae  Malescoldus  nomine,  ut  cognovit  quis  esset,
honeste retinuit" [13].
    Imagine please reading this old text without looking at  the
modern comments which suggest that Dogs Kingdom means the same as
Russia. The text would look like this:
    "He escaped to the Kingdom of Dogs. When  the  king  of  that
land learned about him, he was given a great honor."
   Most probably  such  text  would  be  understood  as  a  story
treating some medieval events in England or Scotland.  The   word
"Dogs" seems to designate a population in some part of England or
Scotland and the name "Malescoldus" very much looks like  a  name
of medieval English or  Scottish  king.  Such  an  interpretation
looks rather  natural.  One  knows  from  Scottish  history,  for
example, that there were several kings with  a   name  "Malcolm",
close  to  "Malescoldus":  Malcolm  I   (943-958),   Malcolm   II
(1004-1034), Malcolm III (1057-1093) etc.
   But  such  interpretation  of  this  text   would   definitely
transform some of ancient Russian events into English ones, i.e.,
into ones which are thought to  happen  on  the  land  of  modern
England. This example suggests that even a direct  understanding,
not to say about an interpretation, of  an  old  historical  text
could be rather ambiguous.
   Differences between  medieval  English  writer's  opinion  and
modern way of understanding and interpretation of medieval  terms
occur for texts written in 9-15th centuries (not  so  old  texts,
from the  point of view of modern tradition). It means that there
exist several possibilities to interpret medieval documents.  The
way of such interpretation which is in general use now, proves to
be not unique. It is only one of possible  ways,  maybe  not  the
best one. We are going to show here that  this  standard  way  is
really not enough supported  by  original  documents.  The  above
vocabulary of synonyms (medieval terms-duplicates) is very useful
for our analysis of English history.



    2.3. An overview of traditional concept of English history

   2.3.1. Scotland and England: two parallel "dynastic streams"

     Fig. 1 shows a rough scheme of the English history as it  is
considered today. The beginning of English history is  placed  in
the 1st century  B.C.  (Julius  Caesar's  conquest  of  England).
Starting at this  moment  and  going  up  to  400  A.D.,  English
chronicles talk in fact about Roman history. Sometimes they  only
mention that certain Roman emperor visit  England.  According  to
English chronicles there were no  independent  kings  in  England
before 400 A.D.
     We will take J.Blair's "Chronological tables" as a source of
information about general structure of English chronology.  These
tables were  compiled  in  the  end  of  18th  c.,  but  the  new
information which became available  after  that  time,  have  not
changed  the  whole  picture  of  English  history  and  so  this
information is not very important for us now.
     In 5th century A.D. the Roman power in England came  to  the
end and in that time the first English kings appeared.
     It was a moment when English history divided into:
     a) history of England and
     b) history of Scotland.
In other words, two dynastic streams began in 5th  c.:
     a) English stream and
     b) Scottish stream.
     These two dynastic streams develop in parallel  up  to  1603
when they transformed into a single dynastic stream of the  Great
Britain.
     In 404 A.D. the long dynasty of Scottish  kings  began  with
the king Fergus I. It ends in 1603 when a united kingdom of Great
Britain appeared  with  it's  first  king  Jacob  I  (1603-1625).
Scottish dynasty looks "very good organized": it practically does
not have simultaneous reigns of different kings, it does not have
breaks and epochs of anarchy also. Being represented  graphically
on a time axis, this dynasty covers  a  1200-year  time  interval
from 404 to 1603 A.D. in a very nice, extremely "regular" manner:
reigns of Scottish kings cover one by one  without  intersections
all this time interval.  It  is  a  fine  example  of  "carefully
written history". See dotted line in the Fig.1.  The  absence  of
simultaneous reigns suggests that Scotland was a  "geographically
homogeneous"  kingdom:  it  never  was   divided   into   several
independent parts.
     English history shows a strong contrast to Scottish  one  in
it's structure.

        2.3.2. English history. Epoch from 1st to 445 A.D.
                   England as the Roman colony.

     Time period from 60 B.C. to the beginning of the era A.D. is
considered today as an epoch of conquest of England by Roman army
under the command of Julius Caesar.
     Period from 1st century A.D. to 445 A.D. is considered to be
an epoch of Roman occupation of  England.  England  was  a  Roman
colony at that epoch, and there were no  English  kings,  because
England was ruled formally  by  Roman  emperors  themselves.  The
description of this period in Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is in fact  a
compilation from Roman history of 1st -  5th  (middle)  centuries
A.D. as it appears in Scaliger's version of chronology.
     It  was  409  A.D.  when,  according  to   the   Anglo-Saxon
Chronicle, Romans were defeated by Goths, leave England and their
power was never restored after that date:
     "In this year the city of Romans was taken by assault by the
Goths,  eleven  hundred  and  ten  years  after  it  was   built.
Afterwards, beyond that, the kings of the Romans ruled no  longer
in Britain; in all  they  had  reigned  there  four  hundred  and
seventy years since Julius Caesar  first  came  to  the  country"
([2],p.11).

                  2.3.3. Epoch from 445 to 830.
                  Six kingdoms and their union.

     From 445 A.D. we see six kingdoms on the English land.  Each
of these kingdoms has it's own dynastic stream of rulers.  Namely
they are
                       Brittany = Britain,
                          Saxons = Kent,
                      Sussex = South Saxons,
                      Wessex = West Saxons,
                       Essex = East Saxons,